The history of Nigeria is a long and complex one, like many states in Africa it is a story of struggle, of subjugation, of instability and tensions. Nigeria covers a landmass of over 930,000 squared kilometres and has a population of over 200 million people making it the most populous place in Africa by far, and the 15th largest by area. Furthermore, and important for the subject matter of this article is has a huge amount of ethnic, religious and cultural diversity as a result of its past. It has nearly 300 unique ethnic groups and even more languages, has three main religions and some 36 states.
To say that Nigeria is a diverse place is an understatement; it is one of the world’s most diverse landscapes. With all this diversity, and other internal conflicts there is bound to be a landscape at present that is fractured and not without tensions. This article will explore three main tensions. In the first part there will be an exploration of the history and present tensions caused by Boko Haram in the north of Nigeria. The subsequent section will consider the recent rise of bandit groups and, their means. The following portion will look into the separatist movement and will focus on the most recent developments in this field, in particular considering the arrest and of the separatist leader. Finally, there will be a conclusion and some possible recommendations, for local and international leaders with how these situations may best be addressed. It should be noted that of course this cannot be a complete analysis of every conflict, skirmish or tension that is present across Nigeria at this moment, as no analysis could hope to cover such a broad range of issues. Rather this analysis will focus primarily on what is believed to be the three most pressing issues facing the country presently.
Boko Haram
Described by some academics as the ‘the most violent phenomena to happen to the Nigerian Fourth Republic’. This analysis will not be so black and white and will, rather than implying that is the cause of all of Nigeria’s problems, will instead seek to better understand the history and development of Boko Haram and attempt to place them as an actor within the backdrop of a very unstable state more broadly.
The story of Boko Haram can be traced back to the advent of democracy in Nigeria. After the 1999 Constitutional reforms states were eager to flex their newfound roles and so with the newly implemented elections a plurality of different opinions came to the fore. As states now had a bit more autonomy to enact their own policies certain northern states sort to implement a legal system more closely aligned with sharia law. This caused a jostling for an elected position to be able to implement that system, with many competing claims as to what is the true sharia legal system, or how best to implement it. This promotion of an independent Islamic identity within Nigeria coupled with underdevelopment and poverty within these communities proved a fertile ground for Boko Haram’s evolution. Boko Haram did not start life as an organisation with overtly destructive means, it was a development from a religious community, with minor criminal undertakings focused on community development and empowerment, to a terrorist organisation that would consider itself at war with the federal government of Nigeria.
The organisation was founded by Mohammed Yusuf, who led the organisation from 2002 to his death in 2009. He started as a controversial preacher who taught how Western Education was incompatible with Islam, the mosque he founded was not evidently militant, it was extreme in its interpretation of the Quran but did not call for the extreme violence later employed by Boko Haram. The mosque had its own farm, its own police, a system of community support, and job opportunities for the un/underemployed people of the area. It didn’t just attract the lower socio-economic class, it also had a pull for the wealthier class, and those more politically connected which is what allowed the organisation to go under the radar for its petty crimes for so long. This all changed in 2009 with an apparently innocuous event that led to a purge and ultimately the death of Yusuf and the transition from a militant to a terrorist organisation. There was an altercation with a local police force that led to a fire fight between followers of Yusuf and the police. This claimed multiple lives. After this event the federal government implemented a security measure with the view of stamping out the followers, this culminated in the assassinations of around 1000 followers and ultimately Yusuf. After his death the movement went underground for around 12 months and finally re-emerged in 2010 under the new leadership of Shekau. This marked a drastic departure from the minor and muted criminality of the organisation in Yusuf, to a much more terroristic version. The actions rather than focused on mutual aid and activism for Islamic purity within the region involved the freeing of prisoners, the bombing of churches, development of ties to other terrorists’ groups like al-Qaeda. As well as huge amounts of arms being stolen from the Nigerian state to further the conflict against them. These displays of force where in turn matched by displays of force, extra-judicial killings by the Nigerian state forces. The next milestone in the development of Boko Haram came when in 2014 they kidnapped more than 200 schoolgirls from Chibok, this even shot the terrorist group into international infamy. This event, while the main focal point for the west, was not the only event in the territorialisation campaign of Boko Haram, thousands of more people have been abducted, killed and forcefully converted in a campaign aimed at bringing about a legitimacy to their control of the region. In recent estimates 350,000 people have been killed in this pseudo-civil war. There have also been affiliations with other larger more organised terrorist groups in recent years like ISIL. The fighter has not been contained to Nigeria either, with reports this month coming from Cameroon that they have apprehended 50 fighters on their territory demonstrating the opportunistic and expansionist inclinations of this group and the potential threat to peace it poses to the whole region. In recent months the leader Shekau has been killed, possible as a result of a disagreement between himself and ISIL this death will inevitably bring about a change in leadership, however what is unknown is how that change with affect the direction of the group.
Bandits
Bandits are not a new feature to the landscape of Nigeria, there have been bandits of some fashion for a while looking to take advantage of the feverous landscape. However, at present there is an increasing intensity of attacks. The epicentre of these criminal gangs is the northwest of the country. The mass abductions really stated to gain traction in December 2020, and unlike the abductions for Boko Haram they lack any centralised control, and their motives are more or less exclusively economic. Having seen the ‘successes’ of Boko Haram and their kidnapping of the Chibok schoolgirls many of these gangs opted to use this method to gain money. It is estimated that circa 1000 people have been kidnapped so far, with the most recent report indicating that some or most have been returned in all likelihood for ransom. This sort of crime strikes right at the heart of a community instilling fear in people simply for, in most cases, attempting to avail themselves of an education. The trauma that it leaves for these child will not be known until many years. But the cost for the community is also immeasurable. Until recently the ransoms were paid by the state but in order to attempt to curtail this they have ceased and now fall to the parents of an already impoverished community. It is estimated that 4.9 million dollars has been extorted. Once this money is spent on a ransom the idea of going back to school, even if the child can psychologically deal with it, is economically impossible due to a lack of money now. So, this then keeps these families in a cycle of poverty where it is impossible to get ahead because education, the once gold standard for exiting poverty, is now not available. This will inevitably have enormous impacts on the general economic development of the area and country as a whole, and may even perpetuate more gangs since it is seen as an easy source of money and people lack the qualifications to pursue other careers.
Separatists
Nigeria has a complex history in the field of separatist movements. The main one, which is also shared by other countries in the area, is the Biafra movement. In the interests of brevity there will not be an extensive consideration of the history of the separatist cause rather this article will focus on the most recent developments and how they are perpetuating a culture of instability.
The recent tensions with regard to the separatists has culminated in the arrest of the leader of the Independent Peoples of Biafra (IPOB). There has been tensions in the south of Nigeria for decades, propagated in part by Kanu. One month ago, at the start of July he was arrested as his push for independence was seen as having crossed the line into armed struggle at the end of 2020, possibly taking advantage of the weakened national security force due to ongoing struggles in the north of the country. His organisation is accused of killing 60 people. It is hoped that this arrest will bring to an end the persistent struggle of the IPOB, however it is unknown the exact effects that this arrest is likely to have.
Conclusion
This article has been over, albeit briefly, some of the key internal conflicts afflicting Nigeria at the moment. It is by no means an exhaustive list of all the issues but address the key points. As stated, earlier Nigeria is arguably one of the world’s most diverse countries and so it is without doubt that tensions will arise. However, what makes the situation in Nigeria of particular significance is the amount of people that could potentially be displaced it is by far the most populous nation in Africa and so sustained and growing conflicts could cause a refugee crisis on a scale that has never before been seen. It is for this reason that now more than ever the issues of stability and security in Nigeria should be taken as a concern for human rights and world peace.
Recommendations
In short, any solution that will be found for these issues will centre around development and more importantly, as would be required by the Nigerian Constitution due to its federalised structure, participation. Firstly, Nigeria is a democracy and so decisions and should take place as close to citizens and with their consent and where possible consultations. Secondly, generally the more successful approach to development is one that has participation embedded within it, it generally leads to higher levels of ownership and happiness with projects.
- The first recommendation would be for a very structured approach for development across the entire north of the country. The very conditions that allowed Boko Haram to start its conquest of northern territories was as a direct result of the under development and lack of opportunities coupled with the sense of neglect by the federal government. How this development will look will not be within the scope of this article, however it should definitely involve the residents of these areas, it should take place as a continuous dialogue that put the rights, needs and the notion of equality at the forefront of the discussion. Any attempt to impose development from the top down, will only further foster a culture of disenfranchisement and lead to further individuals finding their place in organisations like Boko Haram.
- A further recommendation is to raise this issue in the main regional forum, namely the African Union. Within the African Union there is a permanent body that deal with issues concerning peace and stability, namely the Peace and Security Council. This organ has a variety of forums and other mechanisms at its disposal from ‘anticipating and preventing disputes’ to ‘intervention in the event of particularly grave circumstances for example war crimes, genocides etc’. Left unchecked the variety and extent of the conflicts taking place could lead to huge displacements of people, causing internally displaced people and importantly for other states refugees fleeing the conflict. Many items would have to go very wrong before there would be a civil war that would materialise, but it should be noted that Nigeria is no stranger to such conflict having been embroiled in a civil war in the 1960s.
- With regards to actors outside of Africa, there could be an avenue for institutions like the IMF and also maybe more specifically the European Union. The reason why there is a vested interest in the European Union helping out is simple self-interest. The distance from Nigeria to Spain is around 3500km from the northern most point of Nigeria to the southernmost point of Spain this journey is not much further than many asylum seekers have travelled from Syria to the EU. Europe didn’t handle its refugee crisis very well in 2016 onwards and a further one could plunge the bloc into deeper political turmoil. The best to avoid a sudden influx of refugees on the shores of Europe would be to avoid them leaving their country in the first place due to ongoing upheaval. The form this could take could be favourable and secure sources of finance to allow Nigeria to complete her extensive growth and development plans that would aim to lift people out of poverty.
- A final recommendation is directed towards the separatist problem. The history of Nigeria has demonstrated that there has been a persistent struggle between the relationship between the states and the federal government and the recent call for separation is just the most intense manifestation of this struggle. History has also demonstrated when states receive too power or the dividing line between their rights and the federal government isn’t clear it can lead to conflict. Therefore, this recommendation focuses on creating a dialogue between the federal government and the states again to discuss what they both expect from the relationship and maybe adjusting competences, rights and responsibilities accordingly in order to avert the present or new separatist bids.
Source List
- Nnamdi Kanu’s arrest leaves Nigeria’s Ipob separatists in disarray,Nduka Orjinmo https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-57693863
- How kidnap-for-ransom became the “most lucrative industry in Nigeria”, J Arvin,https://www.vox.com/22596198/students-nigeria-profit-kidnapping
- Boko Haram: History and Context Hilary Matfess, School of Advanced International Studies – Nigeria Social Violence Project, Johns Hopkins University
- Ethnicity, Separatists Agitations and National Stability in Nigeria: A Study of the South East Geo-Political Zone (1999 – 2020), Oluranti Ayomola & Olalekan Oketokun, Babcock University
- The Nigerian State and the Resurgence of Separatist Agitations: The Case of Biafra, Ikenna Mike Alumona, Ph.D, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University
- Nigerian separatist movements, growing secession agitations and the stand of international human rights law, Anthony S. Aladekomo, Ekiti State University
- The federal republic of nigeria, J. Isawa Elaigwu, Forum of Federations
By Mahmoud Refaat: The European Institute for International Law and International Relations.
