Book by: Mahmoud Refaat International law is a system of laws governing state-to-state interactions. Individuals and international institutions are two most active and important components of modern international law, yet this archaic definition leaves them out, indicating how far the field has gone. Furthermore, viewing international law as a collection of rules is no longer accurate; rather, it is a …

Buy the book from HERE The intent frequently noted for enforcing sanctions is the wish to solve a conflict without mass struggling and different poor outcomes related to war. This takes a look at places this assumption into context and evaluates whether or not the usage of sanctions is a doable manner to obtain worldwide peace and safety or is …

Introduction In December 2019, the European Commission presented the European Green Deal committing to climate nutrality by 2050. The European Green Deal (EGD) can be considered as a roadmap of key policies for the EU’s climate agenda, based on which the Commission has started, and will continue to develop, legislative proposals and strategies from 2020 onwards (Siddi, 2021). The European …

Since September 2020, a war has been raging between Azerbaijan and Armenia over power in the Nagorno-Karabakh area resulting in more than 6,000 deaths. The Karabakh region is disputed on mainly historical grounds by both Azeris and Armenians. The Azeris claim that the region has always been under Azeri rule in known history; by contrast the Armenians advance the claim …

By Mahmoud Refaat: The European Institute for International Law and International Relations. The region where modern day Libya is situated has a rich history concerning the different societies that have passed there. From evidence of the Berber people to the Phoenicians, and from the Islamic rule to the Ottomans, Libya has been the stage of many struggles amongst a variety …

 Working paper, by Mahmoud Refaat: The European Institute for International Law and International Relations. For one week now, rocket exchanges between Israel and Hamas are intensifying in what appears to be an uncontrollable escalation of violence. After the end of Ramadan, several Palestinian families were threatened with expulsion from East Jerusalem, the occupied part of the city, leading to demonstrations …

 By Alvaro Perez Cardenes, The European Institute for International Law and International Relations. It is a really well-known fact that having a free and independent media is one of the most crucial aspects for having a full and healthy democracy. Having a robust ‘fourth estate’ is key for the democratic process, due to the fact that it enables the adequate participation …

Scottish local elections raise spectre of independence The legislative Scottish and Welsh elections actually take place, the 6th of May and arouse the desires of the Scottish independents. Previously illegitimate, the demand for a new independence referendum has become possible again, as the Brexit has greatly changed the situation. If the election were to give a majority to the pro-independence …

By Bernardo Nascimento, The European Institute for International Law and International Relations. The practice of peace negotiations is something that has been exercised for centuries. Since Thucydides described how the Greek states and Athens achieved the Peace of Nicias, other historians have been redacting about the way peace emerges from war (Holsti 1991, p. 1; Crawley 2009). However, it was not …

Since the treaty of Nice in 2001, the European Union created the European Politcy of Common Security (known as the EPCS), led by the high representative of external policies, previously Ravier Solana. But we can’t properly speak about an European army, and what is displayed is more an orientation strategy, like the Strategy of Security in 2003 that identifies the …